FOREWORD
Volume 1 of the Landscape Strategy for Hertfordshire was drawn up by the Landscape Section Hertfordshire County Council and published in September 1997. It was then presented to the Hertfordshire Countryside Forum, and adopted as Supplementary Planning Guidance to the Structure Plan in 1998.
The aim was to provide the background for the development, in conjunction with the community, of a strategy for the management of change that is expected to occur to the landscape of Hertfordshire. Part of the strategy relies on having a more detailed understanding of the character of the county's landscape - through the kind of landscape character assessment, evaluation and guidelines being developed in subsequent volumes.
Volume 1 of the Landscape Strategy has been adapted to make this edition to accompany the consultation on Volume 2 of the Landscape Strategy but is still broadly based on the original. Ultimately it will need more substantial revision than has been possible to date.
One of the enduring messages set out in this Volume has been the desirability of encouraging a greater understanding of landscape character at the local level - as reflected in one of the original key actions.
SECTION 1a - THE CHANGING LANDSCAPE
LANDSCAPE - WHAT'S THAT?
Landscape is the word we use to describe the way buildings, trees, hills and a host of other features on the surface of the land are organised. Because we initially appreciate this organisation through our eyes, the term landscape has mainly come to be linked with visual apects. But what the landscape looks like is only one of the qualities we value. We also like a landscape's sense of history, wildlife, aromas and sounds, and the opportunities it provides for use.
Landscape in Hertfordshire is the product of a long history of changes, and this change is continuing. Particular pressures come from being situated in the South-East, where there are demands for housing, industrial and leisure developments, and where other activities of a large population take their toll.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MANAGING LANDSCAPE CHANGE
Quality in the landscape is a factor that makes for a good quality of life. Good quality can only be achieved by good control and management. People perceive the landscape in a way that is different to other aspects of their lives. If a local tree is to be cut down or river culverted, the public outcry is usually of a higher magnitude than would be the case for demolition or alteration of a local building. Perhaps this is because the landscape has taken much longer to develop and its rate of change is much slower than the human time scale. Most trees native to Britain live for 200 to 400 years whilst a human lifespan is 70 to 80 years. This means that people perceive the landscape as permanent and unchanging. Whilst this is patently not the case, people find change in the landscape unsettling and therefore seek to control it.
Although over the years a body of legislation has been enacted which provides considerable protection to the character of Hertfordshire's landscape, this is generally defensive in character. It forms a rearguard position to slow the rate of erosion of the character of towns and countryside. It fails, however, to provide any sort of vision of what the landscape could or should look like, and something along these lines is needed.
Particular legitimacy is given to attempts to guide landscape change by the county's Structure Plan. This calls for an approach to landscape change will help future development become more environmentally sustainable. Apart from suggesting better management of change in the wider landscape, it indicates that the county should be identifying those very few landscape areas which are so special that very little change should be allowed to them. These include the best of the county's historic parks and gardens.
THE NATIONAL PICTURE.
In terms of protection of the wider landscape, there are new developments at a national level. In particular there is a move away from "designating" landscapes as special in favour of a more comprehensive approach for all landscapes.
This trend has been established over the past decade by initiatives such as New Agricultural Landscapes, Countryside Management projects and Countryside Stewardship. More recently, English Nature and the Countryside Agency have been leading on a major exercise to produce a Joint Character Map for England. This is being used as a framework to help the two organisations deliver their objectives, and to influence policy development. The methodology used to produce the map is already being mentioned by DETR and now DLTR in its Planning Policy and Good Practice Guidance to planners.
HOW IS HERTFORDSHIRE RESPONDING?
The approach being taken is intended to be consistent with national developments.
The prime aim is to provide a framework and vision to guide those responsible for managing change in the county's landscape. On this it is then expected that more detailed work will be built.
The first stage, identifying and explaining the major landscape regions in the county, the major threats, and future actions required is begun in this volume. Other county strategies, such as for geology, soils, wildlife, woodland and water catchments complement this work at a strategic level, as do Area studies, Local plans and the Community Forest Plan, at the local level. It is already clear, however, that more detailed work is needed to establish the foundations for a credible approach to landscape planning and management at the local level. The material available at a County level is also being developed..
INTRODUCTION TO HERTFORDSHIRE'S LANDSCAPE - THE MAIN INGREDIENTS
Geology
Under the skin of the county lies a variety of materials, from chalk to clays and sand and gravels. These influence the hydrology of different areas and the way that the land weathers and are thus a strong determinant of the topography and soils. Sometimes the geological structure is exposed in cuttings or quarries contributing to local landscape character directly.
Topography
Landform is a key component of landscape character, strongly influencing soils and the history of land use. In Hertfordshire the topography is not distinctively hilly, but there are striking slopes along the scarp slope of the Chilterns and in the north of the county (where they are more visible and a key part of the areas character). The valley bottoms are also distinctive, although are typically fairly narrow. Elsewhere most of the county slopes and undulates.
Soils
Soils are also key, since they strongly influence vegetation and drainage, construction and land use. And when cleared of vegetation, some soil types, such as chalky or flinty soils, can also have a direct visual impact. The impact of flints is also noticeable where they have been used as a building material.
Trees and woodlands
Hertfordshire's trees and woodlands have a major impact on the character of the landscape. They contribute in a number of important ways, e.g.:
- enclosing spaces;
- framing views;
- linking areas and giving the impression of more woodland than actually exists; and
- screening unsightly elements.
Hedges
Hedges make a major contribution to the landscape and are an indicator of its condition. Many are also important historically. They may mark ancient boundaries or define ancient field patterns. Others may be comparatively recent, dating from the Enclosure Acts of the 18th and 19th Centuries.
Traditionally hedges were used to mark out boundaries or as stock-proof enclosures to keep livestock in or out. An important secondary function was to provide food and fuel. In the urban situation their usefulness as an enclosure device persists, but in the countryside they are nowadays valued mostly for the contribution they make to views and wildlife conservation.
Water
Hertfordshire is not a wet county, but in the past water has helped shaped the landform of Hertfordshire, as rivers have eroded the land to create valleys. Rivers, lakes, ponds and canals are very important features in the landscape, by adding interest and variety to views and recreational experiences. They provide reflections, sounds and changes to form and texture. For this reason, many historic parks and gardens and towns have artificial lakes incorporated into their main vistas.
The presence of water in an environment is reflected in different vegetation and wildlife that occurs in the vicinity. For the builder it can also have a large bearing on the methods of construction used and drainage requirements, and thus the cost of development.
Settlements and other built features
The type and arrangement of buildings and settlements within the landscape contributes to the character of the landscape.
Hertfordshire is home to the first two Garden Cities, Letchworth and Welwyn, as well as to the post-war new towns at Hatfield, Hemel Hempstead, and Stevenage.
The importance of these is considerable, as they demonstrate the new approach to town planning design embarked upon in the latter half of the 20th Century. The integration of significant pieces of landscape with the urban fabric makes a considerable contribution to the character, scale and atmosphere of these towns and in several cases compensates for their lack of architectural merit. This approach sets a useful precedent when considering future settlement patterns.
The more historic settlements, such as the market towns Hitchin, Hertford and Bishop's Stortford, and villages like Much Hadham, while having a different pattern of builtform and open space, have an attractive character, and provide a different model for development.
At the more local scale, built elements make a major contribution to local landscape character, often providing the "genius loci" (the sense of place). For example, the Viaduct at Digswell is a very distinctive structure that dominates views in the vicinity..
A history of interactions
Landscape is more, however, than the simple sum of its ingredients. The landscape that we see today is a result of a long history of interaction between people, climate and built and natural features.
Historically it was the interaction and variation between physical factors that governed human impact. More recently it is political factors that are growing in significance, as for example in the case of which crops are grown. Even so the latent character of the landscape is still important in indicating the different areas in which to apply different policies and to follow different practices. Landscape planning must still be based on a detailed analysis of the physical geography of the landscape.
SECTION 1b - HERTFORDSHIRE'S LANDSCAPE REGIONS
(This section is expanded from the original with the incorporation of section 4 and some photographs. When the more detailed assessment for the county has been undertaken it will need to be revisited)
Based on work undertaken by the Countryside Commission and English Nature, but refined by local understanding, a regional pattern of landscape character has been identified for the county.
Region 1: The Northern Vale Salients
Region3: The North Herts Ridge
Region 4: The East Herts Plateau
Region 5: The Central River Valleys
Region 6: The South Herts Plateau
These regions are based on a variety of criteria, but predominantly land form and topography (solid geology), soil types (drift geology), vegetation, field pattern and settlement pattern. The regions are now described in more detail:
Region 1: The Northern Vale Salients.
View from Puttenham (SP886144)
Summary:
This region lies Northwest of the Chilterns escarpment and is characterised by a wet open clay plain containing outlying isolated outlying smaller hills of chalk (the salients).
Landform:
The land here consists of the flat open clay vales, with occasional outlying chalk hills (the salients). On a more intimate scale, there are a number of fields that still demonstrate the old ridge and furrow field marks, plus some ground depressions indicating ancient (Iron Age) deserted villages.
Soils:
The soils of this area are heavy, impervious, clays prone to water logging in winter and cracking in summer. However they are quite fertile and are predominantly in current land use as mixed arable and grassland with comparatively little woodland.
Vegetation:
The main tree species in this area are Ash (Fraxinus excelsior), Willows (Salix sp.) and Poplars with the rare Black Poplar (Populus nigra) in the wetter areas.
On the outlying hills the vegetation changes to more chalk-loving species with Beech (Fagus sylvatica) more evident. Here the remaining dominant woodlands inhabit the steep scarp slopes, so accentuating the topography.
Field Pattern:
The main field pattern is of large rectangular fields surrounded by the straight hedgerows of the Enclosure Act period. Such hedges are less evident in the more northern areas abutting the North Hertfordshire Ridge. This hedgerow framework often overlies a more ancient field pattern, with the few remaining hedges taking a more sinuous organic form.
Settlement Pattern: 
Small villages with dispersed farms.
Significant Features:
i) The contrast between the flat open plains and the steep slopes of the Chilterns escarpment
ii) The unspoilt and quiet rural feel to the area.
iii) Unimproved neutral grasslands, Ridge and Furrow, Ditches/Rivers with Black Poplar and Willow.
Whitegate bridge north of Ashwell (TL262440)
Chiltern Lane (TL168263)
Summary: This region is known for its a dramatic scarp face running between Tring and Hitchin, but most of it lies on the gentler dip slope towards Welwyn, St Albans and Watford. Its character includes rolling chalk hills (capped with clay with flints) and a lack of standing water. Within this region are varied landscapes containing potentially some of the best scenic tracts with the most extreme relative topography in the County.
Landform:
The Chilterns contains Hertfordshire's most notable topography with their north west scarp slopes contrasting with the gentler dip slope hills to the south east. The landform is varied as it is cut by river valleys with a pattern of sinuous side valleys.
Soils:
The soils of The Chilterns fall into two distinct types :
- The calcareous uplands have light, free draining soils which are easy to cultivate, but often thin. These are found mainly on the scarp slopes and hilltops and have been cultivated since prehistoric times.
- The dip slopes are mainly Clay-with-Flints and form heavy, acidic, stony brown earths, difficult to cultivate and lacking fertility. The land they cover was consequently not brought into cultivation until the late Medieval Period, although there is evidence of early settlement where the lighter calcareous soils were exposed on the valley sides.
Vegetation:
Beech (Fagus sylvatica), is considered the "classic" woodland vegetation of The Chilterns, especially on the steep slopes of the valley sides where it forms 'hanger woods'. In fact it is possible that the beech woods are not the "natural" climax vegetation of the area but have been favoured by man, particularly for the furniture industry and so have become the dominant species, somewhat artificially.
Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) is more probably the "natural" climax, as witnessed in the many place names such as Ash Ridge, Ashwell and Ashley Green.
A variety of scrub species including Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and Sloe (Prunus spinosa) as well as open herb rich grassland form the common "natural" vegetation of this area.
Field Pattern:
The fields of both scarp slopes and downland tops are large, open, and have few hedges. Those of the dip slope, though, are larger and more defined by hedges,(with a mixed fabric of more sinuous older lines and rigid straight lines of The Enclosure Act period).
Settlement Pattern:
This region is occupied by a few large towns such as, Hemel Hempstead and Harpenden and several smaller towns such as Berkhamsted, Redbourn and Wheathampstead. In addition, there are a number of small villages, such as Kimpton and Markyate. These settlements show a tendency to be located on the valley sides, although many have since spread up to the tops and along the valley floors. Most of them are also located on route corridors, (some now bypassed or left behind by new main routes).
Significant Features:
Across the Bulbourne Valley (SP956093)
- The rolling countryside with the woodlands on the steeper slopes (especially the Beech-hangers) and the herb-rich chalk grasslands.
- Grand views, with the eye being led into the distance by rolling hills and sinuous lines of vegetation.
- Unimproved chalk grassland, Ancient woodland, Heathland Commons, Chalk Streams and associated Wetland Habitats.
Region 3: The North Hertfordshire Ridge
View from Bygrave to Clothall (Photo C&TJames)
Summary: This region is an extension of the Chilterns in geological terms. However it differs in character in that the hills are gentler and the landscape more open, having been covered by the last Pleistocene Ice Sheet. It is historically important, with human influences from at least 6000 years ago and structures in this open landscape certainly make an impact.
Landform:
The landform of this region is in some ways a 'scaled-down version of the Chilterns', shaped by the forces of the last Ice Age, which covered this area but went no further west in Hertfordshire. This eroded the chalk hills making them lower and also stripped the vegetation away. The hills are orientated with their scarp slope facing north north-west and the dip slope, south south-east. The lack of woody vegetation on the scarp slope makes the landform particularly important here, so that man-made artefacts and surface variations stand out dramatically. There are many tumuli, which act as beacons on the ridge-tops. On the other hand, the "tables" created for the golf tees and greens can become very prominent visual landmarks.
Soils:
The soils of this region are similar to the light calcareous soils of the Chilterns being generally thin and free-draining.
Vegetation:
This region is more open than the Chilterns having fewer woodlands, with fewer woodlands and hedges. The woods have similar species to those in the Chilterns, i.e. Beech (Fagus sylvatica) and Ash (Fraxinus excelsior).
Field Pattern:
This is one of the most open areas of the County, having been subjected to less Enclosure Acts. There are several remnants of ridge and furrow field systems. Fields are often large with hedges or fences uncommon and this gives a continuous visual flow to the terrain here.
Settlement Pattern:
The largest settlement in this region is Letchworth, which to some degree is an 'invented' town. However in many ways it follows the logic of settlement location within this region, with the more major towns situated along route corridors. Letchworth has grown alongside the historic town of Baldock, situated on the edge of the gap where the Chilterns meet the Icknield Way. The other town of any size in the area is Royston, situated on the Icknield Way, (reputedly the oldest road in Britain). Most of the other settlements are small villages and hamlets, often sited just below the hill tops.
Significant Features:
- The vast openness of the landscape. Therfield Heath is an example of a landscape created with limited technology by early man which has remained little changed, providing a chalk grassland of significant importance for its landscape, ecology and archaeology.
- Wide views, stretching off into the distance along the ridge line and away into the flat plains to the north. Often ridge-top woodland contain the views in this direction.
- Unimproved Chalk Grassland, Ancient Woodland.
Region 4: The East Hertfordshire Plateau.
Near Stocking Pelham (TL442297)
Summary: This is an undulating area of boulder clay, incised by several rivers, with a complex mix of fields and small woodlands plus widely dispersed settlements. Although mostly unspectacular visually, the open country lanes afford a succession of unspoilt views, and the valley settlements, typically associated with fords, are a distinctive feature of the region.
Landform:
This is an undulating plateau incised in several places by meandering streams, giving rise to a complex landform. Some areas have a valley or series of valleys that create a strong form, give a sense of direction and are the main determinants of the landscape structure we see. Other areas provide little or no obvious structure and can appear as a random series of rises and dips which cannot be easily interpreted.
Some of the plateau top areas have an uneasy feel, which when analysed may be put down to lacking a distant view, being composed of a foreground and middle ground only.
Soils:
The soils of this region fall into two types, both of which derived from the boulder clay deposits:
The eastern part of the region have chalky clay soils and poorly-drained calcareous gleys. These are prone to waterlogging over level areas but make good arable land on the steeper interfluves where the land is better drained.
The more western side of this region extends into the Central river valleys, with more acid damp soils of the oak series. Here we find more stony but less fertile soils of the east, which when drained makes productive arable land.
Vegetation:
This region has many small dispersed woodlands, several being ancient, semi natural, and are dominated by, either:
Oak (Quercus robur),Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) mix, often in the form of old coppices,
A more varied mix of Oak (Quercus robur), Ash (Fraxinus excelsior), Field Maple (Acer campestre) and Hazel (Corylus avellana).
Field Pattern:
Fields here are normally defined by woods and hedges, often of irregular form. Many hedges and woods have been grubbed out to amalgamate fields in the desire for larger units. Most are medium-sized and there are a number of straight hedges which date from the Enclosure Acts.
Settlement Pattern:
The scarcity of good agricultural land in this region has given rise to a settlement pattern of dispersed villages, mostly found in the river valleys and on plateau edges where the soils are better drained. The largest towns in this region are Buntingford, Sawbridgeworth and Bishops Stortford. In fact, Buntingford does not appear in the Doomsday Book. It is described as only a hamlet in 1288, being sited on the cross-roads of the Roman road of Ermine Street (The A 10) and the road from the Pelhams to Baldock.
Bishops Stortford and Sawbridgeworth are sited at the fords where other old roads cross the Stort River.
In ancient times, these locations were not only good for trade but also because tolls were exacted for using the crossings.
Historically this region has been one of marginal agriculture (hence the dispersed nature of the settlements) and past evidence of deserted farm property illustrates previous failures).
It will be interesting to see what effect a move away from high input farming will have on this region.
Significant Features: 
The dispersed pattern of habitation and woods, which is generally small scale and rural, giving the area an air of having missed the worse excesses of development, despite the importance or the A 10 connecting London and Cambridge.
- The A 10 (connecting two important centres of power) has given rise to another feature of the area, i.e. a number of historic parks and gardens along the A 10.
- The particular character of the incised river valleys in this region are also special features, being possibly the landscape that is most unique to Hertfordshire.
- Ancient Woodlands, River Valley Wetlands, Unimproved Neutral Grasslands.
Braughing Ford (TL395250)
Region 5: The Central River valleys.
View across Lea Valley towards Ware (TL351137)
Summary: This area was created and defined by the former route of the Thames (the proto Thames) and now contains the major rivers of Hertfordshire, many of the major settlements and the major communication corridors.
Landform:
As the name implies, this is a region defined by its valley form, being made up of the lower valleys of the Ver, Colne, Beane and Lea.
The main part of this region was formed by the Proto Thames, which was diverted by the glaciers of the Ice Age to its present course. Most of the valleys are broad, shallow, land forms of open character.
Soils:
The soils of this region are mainly well drained and fertile, being made up of friable brown earths. They are moisture retentive and relatively easy to work and allow some of the most productive arable farming in Hertfordshire.
In recent times they formed the basis of the market garden industry of the Lea Valley.
Underneath the soils are layers of gravel which have been exploited for some considerable time as a major source of building materials. This has given rise to what could be considered a feature of the region, gravel pits and their aftermath.
Vegetation:
The river valleys contain some of the largest blocks of woodland in the County. The names of some of these woods can give in indication of their species although many have been periodically felled and replanted with exotic alien species (e.g. Prae Wood to the west of St Albans). Prae is the old common name for Small Leafed Lime (Tilia cordata), but this wood is now mainly coniferous plantation. Other descriptive names include Birch Wood (Betula pendula) and Oaklands (Quercus robur & petrea).
In the more attractive areas, these woods follow and accentuate the valley form, often following the valley-side contours, leaving the flat valley floors predominantly open.
This region also formerly contained large expanses of heathland, now only found as isolated remnants in the form of commons e.g. Chorleywood Common, Bricketwood Common, Colney Heath Common etc.
Field Pattern:
In many places the fields are large and open with hedges remaining as neglected remnants. Fences are fairly common, most of the land being given over to arable production.
Settlement Pattern:
This region contains most of the largest settlements in the County, including Watford, Bushey, Rickmansworth, St Albans, Stevenage, Cheshunt, Waltham Cross, Welwyn Garden City, Hoddesdon, Hatfield, Hertford and Ware. This is probably due to a number of factors:
Historically, the river valleys provided the means of access into the heart of the County and allowed good access for the clearance of the forest during a major second phase of development.
After clearance, the valleys developed as the main routes through the County and provided the materials to sustain larger populations.
These premium sites for settlement provided access to water yet were dry and sheltered, with good soils for agriculture.
Significant Features:
- A great deal of the County's development has taken place within this region. This development has created features of great heritage value, such as Verulamium, as well as eyesores and clutter, such as electricity pylons and industrial sites, detrimental to the overall visual amenity of the region.
- The ease of transport between major towns (as centres for commerce, work and entertainment) along the natural "weaknesses" in the landscape make this region a sensible area for routing main communication lines.
- River Valley Wetlands, Heathland, Ancient Woodland
Region 6: The South Hertfordshire plateau.
Broxbourne Woods Complex (Charles Franklin/Bob Norris)
Summary: This includes the Shenley Ridge and Broxbourne Woods and is a region of generally small fields, woodland and heaths, of some historic, scientific and amenity importance.
Landform:
This region is quite complex topographically, having many valleys cut into it, often dry, with vegetation obscuring the topography. In general, this plateau is a broad south-west to north-east ridge, with rivers draining from it into the Colne and Ver to the north-west and into the Lea to the east. In places this river erosion has created near-isolated landforms, such as the Shenley Ridge.
Soils:
The soils of this region are formed from London clays, which produce heavy, acidic soils prone to waterlogging in winter over level areas with the extremes of shrinking and cracking in summer. This has made them difficult to cultivate and has had a number of consequences.
Vegetation:
The eastern part of this region is heavily wooded with a mix of Oak (Quercus robur) and Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus). There are also significant and distinct pockets of the other native Oak (Quercus petrea), which are likely to be a relic population. Much of this is traditional coppice woodland with oak standards and hornbeam under coppice. Due to the lack of continuing management, many areas have not been coppiced correctly and have allowed the coppice stand to grow into dense unnatural "high forest". As a result, the woods have become very dark, with limited understory and reduced wildlife value. Where coppicing has been maintained or reintroduced, the woods have developed a multi-layered canopy creating a more interesting visual experience, of greater ecological benefit. Birch (Betula pendula) and Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) are also found in this region.
The more western part of this region is less heavily wooded, probably because of its proximity to a greater number of Roman roads (the A5 along Watling Street and the A1).These routes would have facilitated clearance and also encouraged development adjacent to the settlements nearby.
Field Pattern:
These vary greatly with those in the east being small and generally organic in form. Some still look as though cut out from the "Wildwood" and provide examples of the traditional wood and pasture agriculture.
The western part of this region having been more extensively developed has a mix of more rigid forms (of the later Enclosure Act fields) superimposed over the ancient organic field patterns. Most are defined by hedges, although there are several areas where fences are more common due to pressure of 'horsiculture', (horses eat hedges).
Settlement Pattern:
This region contains several medium-sized towns such as Borehamwood, Potters Bar and Bushey, as well as several smaller towns and villages such as Cuffley, Brookmans Park, Shenley and Welham Green. To the north-east, this region contains several very small villages such as Brickendon, Epping Green, Little Berkhamsted etc.
Significant Features:
- The Broxbourne Woods are the main feature of this region, being a large continuous expanse of woodland cover of great landscape and ecological value.
- Dramatic changes occur as one moves out from the enclosed "tunnel" effect within woodland or between hedges, to sudden unexpected framed views over the extensive panorama down across the Lea Valley and North London.
- Shenley Ridge is an area of very attractive landscape with well maintained farms, interesting land forms and extensive views.
- Significant detracting elements include the M25, especially where it cut across the "grain" of the landscape. A good example of this is at Ridgehill, near the Salisbury Hall Aircraft Museum, where the motorway sits in a 'notch' through the ridge.
- Poorly designed and garish developments in the Vale of St Albans.
- Power lines in places disrupting the flow of the landscape.
- Ancient Woodland, Heathland.
SECTION 2 - LANDSCAPE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
CONSERVING CHARACTER IN A TIME OF CHANGE
In the modern world of rapid and easily available transport, the differences between places becomes increasingly important. This is especially important since system-building (with universally available materials) and road construction has begun to homogenise the country. Many of the most dramatic changes to the landscape have taken place since the Industrial Revolution and more specifically, since the Second World War. These changes are a reflection of the increasing availability of energy and power. Fields have become larger and hedgerows have disappeared as modern agricultural implements have become more larger. Arable farming has become more widespread as marginal stony land (traditionally only good for grazing) has been improved and wet or waterlogged ground drained and ploughed. With modern earthmoving machinery roads can now cut across the grain of the land rather than needing to following contours sympathetically. Woods and hedges fall into neglect because we no longer collect timber for fuel or use them for stock retention. New planting and existing woodland also suffer severe browsing from deer. These animals are now less controlled than they would have been in the past, as a source of food and with the traditional hunt now under scrutiny.
Many of these developments and changes appear "uncomfortable" in their natural setting. Their creation requires a large amount of energy input and energy inputs must often be maintained to sustain them.
Ignoring the landscape character, which denies the natural logic that lies behind it, seems to be a trend in modern construction. For example, when a road crosses a valley we now tend to build an embankment instead of bridging, so visually closing off the valley. In many cases a bridge would better reflect the presence of a valley.
Economics, of course, (and often short-term economics) has been the main consideration in most decisions and can provide an indirect but very strong pressure on land in many ways:
- In Hertfordshire the value of land so close to London means that, despite its Green Belt status, there is immense pressure and 'hope value' to release land for building. This has led to the degradation of agricultural estates in the hope that development would eventually gain favour.
- Historic Parks and Gardens are often put forward as potential golf courses in order to provide income to support the upkeep of the Manor Houses that they surround.
- Various grant schemes from both the UK and EU directly affect the landscape by encouraging certain crops to be grown, hedges and woodlands to be planted (or grubbed up)
- The wish to encourage economic development can lead to less stringent landscape conditions being imposed on development.
- Charging for landfill encourages flytipping.
Other forces for the erosion of landscape character include:
- Dutch Elm disease and the storms of 1987 and 1990. These have taken their toll on the woodland cover of the County. Major trees have been lost and damaged with woodlands now poorly managed and unkempt in appearance.
- A lowering of the water table has and will have further effect as streams, rivers, lakes and ponds dry up and vegetation slowly dies or at best changes to more drought tolerant species.
- Past fashions in planting show a tendency to use species which tend to look alien in the landscape (especially when in plantations) e.g. poplars and Norway spruce. In contrast, when used in parks and gardens some exotic specimens can make a positive contribution.
- Pests and vermin can cause considerable damage to woodlands and the local ecology, in some areas making replanting or regeneration impossible. In certain areas the squirrel damage may actually destroy a wood, for example in some of the isolated woods in the Chilterns. Moreover the presence of deer in other areas may preclude woodland practices (such as coppicing) and damage new planting.
- Policies to encourage over-production of food within the EEC have now led to the crude short-term policy of 'Set-aside (i.e. taking land out of agricultural production temporarily). This has often created an unkempt landscape with an uncared-for appearance.
Only a strategy based on identifying and retaining landscape character will safeguard this aspect of the landscape. The justification for such a strategy, however, is and cannot be vain preference, but the business of ensuring that all of Hertfordshire's economic, social and environmental opportunities can simultaneously be safeguarded and developed for the future - the goal of sustainable development.
(Since this was written DETR has published a succession of Good Practice Guidance documents and the Rural White Paper which further makes the link between Landscape Character conservation and sustainable development)
LANDSCAPE PLANNING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY.
Sustainability may be defined as "meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs". Sustainability or sustainable development is rapidly also becoming the basic aim of public policy.
In the future we will not only have to consider how can we minimise the impact of development, but more often whether or not we can even allow it. We will be the guardians or managers of a resource rather than the developers.
The following analysis looks at the relationships between the landscape and sustainable development; how a better approach to the management of landscape change could contribute to environmental sustainability. It is not intended to be complete, but illustratative, and will need expanding upon. The headings used in this section are the same as the aims for sustainability set out in the latest Structure Plan.
Making the most efficient use of non-renewable resources, including land
An understanding of the landscape can help guide effective land-use decisions. Some of Hertfordshire's poorest land, for example, often that which is most difficult to cultivate or build on, grows trees beautifully.
Increasing the use of renewable resources
The Hertfordshire landscape can provide a wide range of renewable resources including timber, bio-fuels, crops, and places in which to recreate. While agriculture needs few more incentives, woodland management is in the doldrums. However, apart from providing woodland products, woodland has the highest ability of all landscape types to absorb more people, vehicles, buildings etc., with the least detrimental impact. If woodland management could be helped become more economically viable, and sustainably so, this would help make better use of and ensure the future health of the woodland resource in the County.
Given the challenge provided by the state Hertfordshire's woodlands are believed to be in, at a time when Central Government is also calling for a doubling of woodland cover, a strategy for the county's woodlands is needed as soon as possible. This is further discussed in Appendix C.
Mitigating the possible effects of greenhouse gases on climate change and increasing the rate of carbon fixing
Vegetation absorbs Carbon Dioxide and gives off Oxygen so helping to combat global warming. To illustrate the contribution vegetation can make we should consider that it has been calculated that one mature tree absorbs 2352g of Carbon Dioxide per hour and gives out 1712g of Oxygen per hour. That is enough oxygen in a year for ten people. More planting should be encouraged.
Reducing the effects of pollution on ecosystems and health:
Air is our most basic requirement and has been badly affected by vehicular and industrial pollution. Vegetation can help remove airborne particulates in a variety of ways. England has 10% woodland cover and this is estimated to absorbs 2% of the pollution produced by industry. While this shows that the woodlands will never absorb all our pollution given present levels, trees provide a valuable role in cleaning air close to pollution sources.
Trees and other vegetation can and have also been used to "clean" polluted land, because they are able to absorb toxins from the soil. This process is still in the very early stages of research however and we must be very careful if considering this benefit, as the toxins may only removed from the soil by transferring them to the tree. Subsequent use of the timber could well release the toxins back into the environment.
Protection of critical assets
Hertfordshire has rich heritage of grand houses with associated parks and gardens. This is due predominantly to its proximity to London and other centres of power and influence, such as Cambridge.
There are some 40 parks or gardens listed in the English Heritage's Register for the County, of which 2 are Grade I and 9 Grade II* (with one more Grade II* under review). There are also many notable parks and gardens that are not on the English Heritage Register whose omission has more to do with lack of research than lack of quality.
Many of these parks and gardens are under threat from development or neglect. Often not the obvious threats such as roads or superstores, but more subtle changes towards providing entertainment and recreation in order to create income for the historic houses that they surround. Insensitively designed car parking, golf courses and tennis courts, for example, can subtly alter the character and diminish the quality of this neglected part of our cultural and artistic heritage.
Another finite resource is the county's soil. This is subject to constant physical loss by wind and water erosion, by mismanagement, and to a lesser extent by development. The County Structure Plan already has a policy that presume against development on better grade soils. Appropriate treatment of the landscape, however, can also help the conservation of good soils, by preventing this loss. This might include, for example, encouraging the retention and planting of hedges and wind breaks.
Protection of less critical assets
Effective landscape treatment can help minimise the impact on other attractive landscape of development, e.g. new roads; new areas of housing; golf courses with their artificial man-made mounds and bunkers; and mineral extraction. In addition, it can enhance the development of landscape quality; restoration of mineral extraction sites, for example, might not necessarily mean landfill back to original levels, but could be at low-level to create an exciting new landform or water body.
Unfortunately there are still many built structures, such as pylons, which fall outside Hertfordshire's powers to control and continue to "urbanise" the countryside. It will be interesting to see if the development of local sources of energy can stem the march of these structures across the landscape.
Development of the rural economy
Many of the perceived problems in the landscape stem from the economic viability of certain features and activities, due to our increasing separation from "natural" low0input ways of doing things. When we no longer use the landscape as we used to, it can fall into disrepair. We can see this in particular with woodlands and hedgerows, both of which used to be valued sources of timber, fuel and fodder. Their value as a resource meant that they were carefully maintained. Since we no longer need them for fuel or fodder, we do not use them and their maintenance becomes a task or chore, which costs money. In order to make retention of woods and hedgerows sustainable they must have an economic viability, otherwise their upkeep will rely the fluctuations of grants and handouts which are often susceptible to alterations of priorities.
The countryside is not just a rural space that looks after itself, it is made up of a number of businesses. Many of these businesses are based on farm units or woodlands and must manufacture or produce goods for sale in order to maintain their viability. The fact that their grounds or premises are also used in a variety of ways by a variety of third parties is an important consideration. Unless we are prepared to pay for the countryside to be a park, it is important to remember their status and function. In this instance, environmental considerations are reliant on economic viability.
Farmers have been encouraged since 1945 to think of their farms as factory floors for the production of food and the whole of agriculture now tends to consider itself an industry. More recently agricultural policy has shifted towards linking subsidy to farmers with environmental improvements. In this way landscape improvements may come to go hand in hand with development of the rural economy. At the same time the scale of subsidies potentially being offered suggest that it is timely to examine what features we want to encourage.
Minimising the degradation of water resources
Hertfordshire has two main of sources of water; one is rivers and the other aquifers, which feed wells. The amount of water entering the County, however, is finite and the amount available for use can be calculated. Theoretically this could give a carrying capacity for the County, which would state the number of people and amount of industry the County could sustain, given present technology. Clearly this could be altered by using water-saving techniques or importing water from elsewhere, but nonetheless could provide a useful base reference point. Historically, however, Hertfordshire has had sufficient water to "export" its surplus to London and thus as its population is not predicted to rise substantially is likely to continue to be well-watered.
Notwithstanding an apparent surplus of water, recently there has been much concern about low flows in rivers. The quality of the water being returned to the rivers from industrial, road, or housing outfalls plus other sources of pollution is also causes for concern as is the quality of water reaching the aquifer.
The Environment Agency (previously National Rivers Authority) have produced a number of catchment management plans, which include visions and action plans relating to water environment issues, which must be taken as part of any plans relating to their areas. The Agency also have a regional water resource strategy which addresses the issue of water availability and demands. This will encourage good landscape management, however, e.g. involving retaining buffer strips alongside watercourses or the use of proper structures during development to intercept pollutants carried in storm-water.
Another concern related to water is flood damage. Much of this is caused by allowing developments in natural flood plains, by culverting and by drainage "improvement" schemes which bring water downstream faster than is the landscape area's natural character. These drainage "improvements" also often urbanise the rural stretches of rivers and streams, reducing their visual quality and local amenity. Headwater degradation in the river catchment areas has been brought about by the removal of permanent pasture, woodland and pond systems. This not only creates problems in terms of water-flow regulation, but also has a significant impact on the landscape qualities of these features.
Again, sensitive landscape treatment, perhaps involving reductions in drainage standards, or the use of porous surfacing wherever possible can contribute to objectives for a sustainable water supply.
HOW TO IMPROVE THE OVERALL QUALITY OF LIFE, TO PROVIDE A SAFE, HEALTHY, DIVERSE AND PLEASANT ENVIRONMENT
It is to this aspect of sustainable development that landscape can make its most significant contribution.
Two main things that the landscape contributes under the quality of life heading are:
- Visual amenity
- Historic Evidence
Visual amenity
One illustration of how much visual amenity is believed to contribute to the quality of life is the continued retention of a Green Belt policy.
Unfortunately Greenbelt policy relies on the continuation of farming to preserve the rural character of the landscape that we appreciate, but has not properly accommodated for the changing nature of agriculture. Although very successful, in that comparatively little agricultural land has been lost recently, a great deal has been radically altered, degraded, neglected, or turned over to "hobby" farming or poor quality 'horsiculture'. In some areas tipping on land has been allowed or even encouraged in the hopes that by degradation, the land will be taken out of the Green Belt and development allowed (hope value).
Historic evidence
It is important to recognise that the landscape of Hertfordshire as we see it today represents only the end result/cumulative affect of hundreds of thousands of years of natural processes which have been subtlety interwoven with processes and actions resulting from human impact and interference.
Examples of some of the principle chronological layers which are present within the landscape of Hertfordshire are the enclosure of commons and open fields during the 18th and 19th centuries which led to the creation of many of the hedgerows in the county; and creation of the parish system in the 12th century. Other less obvious, but important historic layers are represented by the boundaries of Roman farming estates and prehistoric territorial boundaries. These, as one might expect, are much more fragmentary and difficult to spot than the later phases, although it is clear that many of the later phases of landscape change were strongly influenced by them.
Further examples of historic landscape phases are represented by the many parks created for hunting by the landed gentry in Hertfordshire, the various phases of town creation in the county (Roman towns, Medieval towns, Garden Cities and New Towns) and in the very recent past, the creation of large numbers of golf courses.
It is therefore probably true to say that almost all of Hertfordshire's landscape can be regarded as 'historic' in that what we see in the towns and the countryside is the product of past events and will continue to be influenced by decisions made today and also in the future.
At a local level this historic dimension of landscape comes into its own, providing the key to understanding local landscape character, providing a tangible link with the past, and providing local resources to study and appreciate.
SECTION 3 - A STRATEGY FOR ACTION 1997 ONWARDS
(This is now dated in places)
The strategy for Hertfordshire's Landscape must aim to maintain and enhance the character and visual quality of landscape types, thus conserving local identity and 'sense of place' at a time of continuing change. Existing methods of dealing with change are by restrictive planning laws and negative control. The strategy, however, must go beyond these to provide a vision or direction to help manage change and to encourage the same (or better) consideration of aesthetics as apply to urban planning control.
At the same time it is recognised that Hertfordshire's landscape is viewed best at a local scale, and it is not appropriate to be over-prescriptive in strategies at a county level. And in order to ensure that proposals are widely owned, they need to be developed in concert with the community.
The main elements of the Strategy are therefore:
- promotion of this background paper, and development of its ideas into new policies.
- further definition of local landscape character areas, in conjunction with the community, in a format consistent with the national approach.
- widespread promotion of the results of these further analyses, in order to cultivate a "sense of place" as a way of thinking, a mission, rather than a series of prescriptions.
- some further detailed guidance and policy-work derived from the local analyses, probably at a local level.
- ancilliary actions as outlined in the following plans, and its subsequent revisions: and
- the related aims and targets that will emerge from 'sister' strategies for archaeology, wildlife, woodland, soils and water
The aims of the Strategy are reflected in the aims are shown at the head of each of the following action plan, and are related to the sustainability aims in the Structure Plan as shown in the matrix overleaf.
Action Plan 1: To encourage the conservation and management of the existing Landscape in a way that enhances the distinctive character of each of the different Landscape Regions.
Action Partner Resource Targets
Review all District Existing Ongoing for general
development that is and Parish development control.
proposed in the Councils. Produce a series of
County through the design guidelines on
various Planning themed subjects as
Authorities, and appropriate.
ensure that those
empowered to take
decisions are
properly aware of
the issues.
Ensure that local District Existing Ongoing.
people are aware of and Parish Develop the role of
the landscape types Councils, planning control in
in which they live, Schools and Local Agenda 21.
are proud of them other local
and can participate communities.
in the planning
process.
Promote Landowners, Forestry Ongoing.
economically viable CMS, Officer.
uses of woodlands District
and hedgerows to Councils
ensure their and
continued value. Industry.
Action Plan 2 - To protect the Quality of the Historic, Cultural and Ecological Heritage of the County landscapes.
Action Partners Resources Target
Include all Parks and HEIS and Existing. April 97.
Gardens on the English English
Heritage Schedule on Heritage.
the County
Archaeological Record.
Expand the Data Hertfordshire Existing. Research six historic
Bases on which policies Gardens Parks and Gardens per
and strategy decisions Trust annum.
are made and on the Herts and
basis of which Middlesex
practical conservation Wildlife
is carried out. Trust
Designate areas of the CMS, HEIS. Existing. Ongoing.
County with particular
interest as Heritage
Areas and negotiate
voluntary agreements
with the owners, and
target grants, to
ensure their proper
management.
Identify key ecological HEIS Existing. See Nature
areas and protect them Herts and Conservation
to beyond their Middlesex Strategy.
boundaries. Wildlife
Trust.
Set protocols to avoid Landscape Existing. Ongoing.
artificial Design and
"improvements" to key Engineering
areas. Design
Groups.
Ensure landscape Landscape Existing. Ongoing.
improvements create Design Group
connections between key
areas in a form that is
suitable and fitting in
landscape and aesthetic
terms.
Investigate the All Existing.
feasibility of statutory
concentrating all undertakers,
visually detrimental Districts
features (e.g. power DoT.
lines) into narrow and
limited corridors (e.g.
M1, M25) which could
then be screened.
Action Plan 3 - To protect the Quality of Landscape Conservation Areas.
Action Partner Resources Targets Develop Planning District Existing. Ongoing. Policies and Landscape Councils. Guidelines the Local Authorities will protect and improve Landscape Conservation areas. Review the boundaries District Existing. Ongoing. of landscape Councils. conservation areas and adjust as necessary. Encourage the BEAMS/HBPT, Existing. To prevent conservation and HGT and fragmentation of the enhancement of District remaining tranquil landscape in Councils. rural areas and Conservation Areas and discourage their as settings around degradation Historic Sites. Encourage the removal Landowners, Existing To properly mitigate of all detrimental BEAMS, HGT, their impact in those features from CMS. areas already degraded conservation areas or by development minimise their impact.
Action Plan 4 - To Improve The Quality of Poor Landscapes.
Action Partner Resources Targets Where development is District Existing. Ongoing. proposed, the Planning Councils Authorities will seek and positive landscape developers. enhancement through planning control. * see note below. Consider the merits of District Existing. This must be linked creating e a forum of Councils to the progress of representatives from a and Parish Local Agenda 21, and variety of expert Councils the timetable for disciplines, together and other that. with local local representatives, to communities. review all planning applications that effect the landscape. Ensure that all forms District Existing. Ongoing. of new built Councils development and other and development features developers. are designed to reflect and blend with the local landscape character, by developing a data base identifying the key characteristics.
Action Plan 5 - To ensure a holistic and integrated approach to landscape and environmental conservation and development in the County.
Action Partner Resources Targets
Create a forum to work A HEIS led Existing. Started Autumn '95,
towards a co-ordinated project in develop further.
partnership approach to partnership
landscape and with LAMP, to
environmental ensure that
conservation and all
development in the environmental
County. aspects are
considered
Ensure that factors LAMP, ERC, Existing. Set up a forum to
affecting the landscape Archaeology, consider planning
and environment of a HBPT and applications and
given area are others as their implications,
considered together in appropriate. with members from
order to provide an all relevant
overview for the disciplines.
decision making
process.
Action Plan 6 - Establish a data base resource of information on the landscape and ensure that it is regularly updated and effectively used.
Action Partner Resources Targets
Carry out surveys and The Approx There are approx 250
research to gain a Hertfordshire £2000 per potential sites in
proper understanding of Gardens annum to the County, some of
the historic parks and Trust. fund which may have
gardens of the County. Possibly research disappeared. At 25
English co-ordinatio per year, this will
Heritage. n, plus take 10 years to
resource to complete. The
input data present rate of
on GIS. research is less
than 25 per year.
Ensure that all HEIS, Existing Initial
relevant information District plus identification of
concerning other Councils, student and historic landscape
disciplines is properly HBPT, HGT, GIS types by Autumn '98.
taken into account and CMS. support.
linked to those data
bases. eg Historic
Landscapes, Ecology
and whole settlement
plans.
Carry out an appraisal District Existing Publish appraisal by
of the County's Councils, plus Autumn '98.
landscapes on a finer ERC, student/shor
grained approach than Archaeology t term
in the Strategy, and in contract
line with the plus GIS.
"Warwickshire Method".
* see below for
resource implications.
Assist in the HEIS, Existing Dependant upon the
development of a District plus GIS GIS timetable.
Geographical Councils and person. Initial data to be
Information System, and HGT loaded by Autumn
ensure that the '96, further input
landscape data base is ongoing.
adequately set up as
part of it.
Promote a wider Landscape Existing Continue the
understanding and Design plus access Learning Through
enjoyment of the Group, CMS, to a budget Landscapes
landscape. HEIS and for programme, promote
HGT. promotional the landscape
material. aspects of Stepping
Out, and promote
educational talks.
(In need of revision)
The advent of Environmental Assessments for major schemes has helped to anticipate problems at an early stage in the planning of new routes and to plan for their mitigation. The involvement of Landscape Architects, Ecologists, Archaeologists and other specialists at this early stage is of considerable benefit in determining the alignment to minimise damage and maximise integration. If a scheme is deemed to be essential, new roads and major road improvements offer opportunities for landscape enhancement which must be grasped. A joint team of engineers, landscape architects and other environmentalists should treat the route as a integrated project focusing on design features views, screening of engineering structures (bridges & walls) enhancement of hedges, woodland, ponds , wildlife etc. to produce the optimum solution.
Many existing roads offer opportunities for improvement simply by altering their management & maintenance. In most circumstances the immediate road verge must be cut short for safety reasons, but the management of the area behind this initial margin can be designed to maximise the wildlife potential as well as provide a more interesting visual environment for the motorist, passenger, or other road user.
Many small scale road "improvements" will not be subject to the planning process, let alone an Environmental Statement, yet they are capable of altering the character of an area. Examples are:
edging lanes with kerbs,
better lighting,
signage ,etc.
all of which may improve safety, but also urbanise the countryside and villages.
Careful design of road surrounds can influence the feel of the road and the way in which it is used, e.g. narrowing of the lane width and confinement of the sides will slow traffic, helping to calm areas and reduce accidents.
Since road traffic is one of the major contributors to degradation of the environment, the planning stage offers the opportunity to push for carefully designed, safe cycle paths, to encourage a major form of non-polluting transport.
The Good Roads Guide, Environmental Design Guide for Inter Urban Roads, published by the Department of Transport, provides a sound basis for ensuring that the design and alignment of roads schemes are properly considered, and should be used as a minimum requirement.
Housing and Industrial Development.
It is inevitable that Hertfordshire will have to accommodate more housing and more industry in the future. The rate of development will of course depend upon the economy and its rate of expansion or contraction.
At the moment there is a quantity of space within the towns due to the recent recession which has left many businesses closed, and these sites should of course be utilised for redevelopment in preference to greenfield sites. The available urban space also offers an opportunity to rethink the open spaces and green fingers within towns, as well as opportunities for regeneration and reuse.
The options for development fall into two broad categories:
either town cramming
or new settlements with development in the open countryside.
There are advantages and disadvantages in both options, an open mind is necessary when reviewing each proposal, against the circumstances at the time. For any option however, landscape must be an essential element in the sitting, layout and design of the proposal. This is no more than existing good practice but unfortunately it is not often considered.
The designers must consider :
- how the development will look in its surroundings,
- what the significant features are both within and around the site,
- views that need to be retained or framed or screened, and
- how to break up the facade if the development is large and bland.
- Suitable species for planting in the area to maintain regional identity.
- Suitable hard materials for the area to maintain regional identity.
Edges of developments are particularly important. Harsh or abrupt edges should be avoided, especially where they adjoin the countryside. It is normally more appropriate to plant the edges of development. If done well, this not only softens the boundary but may also provide shelter and reduce energy costs whilst screening the development from its surroundings (and sometimes the surroundings from the development).
The aesthetic sitting of any development should be considered alongside the practical considerations, such as drainage and flood-risk. Opportunities for clean surface water to be creatively returned to the 'groundwater reservoir' the water table should be sought, by using ponds designed to enhance wildlife and provide visual interest.
Mineral sites
The extraction of minerals (predominantly sand and gravel) is a duty placed on the County Council. It is clear that this can never be a sustainable industry because it is uses a non-renewable resource. It has a major impact on people living in the area. In other parts of the country the remnants of similar industries are now being preserved as monuments to the industrial archaeology, e.g. the china clay mounds in Cornwall and the lead mine pits of Derbyshire.
However, most of the mineral sites are going to be restored and so it is very important to ensure a high quality of proposed restoration at the planning application stage. This will predominantly be to pre existing contours. In the past most restoration schemes have proposed a return to agriculture which now seems inappropriate in the present climate of 'set- aside' and agricultural surpluses. This gives the opportunity for restoration of sites to uses that may provide a more positive contribution to the landscape such as woodland or water for both recreation and wildlife, or unsociable and 'bad neighbour' recreation, (such as clay-pigeon shooting or motorcycle scrambling)or many other more creative uses.
In principle, a preference for a method of working and restoring mineral sites (from a landscape perspective) is to work to restore an area in a comprehensive fashion. This may be phased but would require an overall masterplan rather than field by field piecemeal working and restoration, which results in a fragmented and despoiled landscape.
We should also not be afraid to leave certain sites with low-level restoration, as they:
- provide a historic record of the land use at the time
- they expose the geology,
- they have their own aesthetic value found only in wilderness areas (viz. pioneer vegetation on bare geology).
- It may be more appropriate and less detrimental than landfill.
Farmland
Farming and farmland form the majority of the countryside and it follows that influences on farming affect the way the countryside looks.
In recent decades many people have bemoaned the loss of hedges which have either fallen into neglect & disrepair or have been grubbed out. The main aesthetic value of hedges in the landscape is to tie features together, providing visual and physical links. This linkage is reputed to benefit ecology and help create the "characteristic" patchwork of the English landscape. In fact many hedges are of quite recent origin. If an earlier period of history is examined, one finds the "traditional" English landscape is not so divided. Those hedges that are of antiquity should, of course, be preserved as they not only provide visual interest but also indicate the history of an area. They also provide a 'gene bank' of local seeds and species.
Other more recent hedges should be treated on their merits, although there should be a presumption against destruction, as they are functional as well as visual. Certain landscapes would actually benefit from very carefully considered hedge removal e.g. river valleys where hedges run parallel to the river. (This could only be appropriate where there would be very little or no adverse ecological effect).
The "industrialisation" of farming has enabled land that was previously too wet for arable use to be ploughed, drained and brought into production. In terms of sustainability this cannot be encouraged since this type of farming relies upon a high energy input both to make it possible and to maintain it. Viewed alongside the modern requirements for 'set-aside', these high input farming practices seem even more unacceptable.
Sustainable agricultural practices should be encouraged.
Trees and Woodlands.
Woodland is predominantly the natural climax vegetation for the majority of the British Isles. The quality, quantity and species mix of woodland reflects the geology, aspect, micro-climate, soil type and land use of a particular landscape.
In terms of guiding landscape management to reflect local character, there are eight major woodland types (by species mix) in the county. These are:
- Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus).Historically often coppiced for use as charcoal.
- Ash (Fraxinus excelsior), with Maple (Acer campestre).
- Beech (Fagus sylvatica).
Much used by the furniture industry in the 18th and 19th centuries and "encouraged" on chalk areas such as the Chilterns, (a high forest* system of management).
- Oak (Quercus robur) with Hazel (Corylus avellana).
Hazel in particular has been an important source of food since Mesolithic times. Oak has been important for timber production (oak is often in a high forest management system for timber). - Oak (Quercus robur) with Birch (Betula pendula).
Possibly created by the desire to grow abnormally large numbers of Oak, which is then felled, allowing the Birch to invade and provide shelter for the new Oak, (a high forest management system for timber production).
- Elm (Ulmus sp.). Now reduced to scrub and suckers.
Traditionally a field tree in hedges, providing shade and fodder for livestock, now virtually disappeared due to Dutch Elm Disease. Traditionally a construction timber especially useful in wet and saturated conditions, such as for bridge supports.
- Alder (Alnus glutinosa).
May be found as "ribbon woods" within other woods along streams.
- Oak (Quercus petrea) with Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus).
This is a traditional coppice standard mix, where the Hornbeam is grown as a coppice understory and is cut regularly for small sized timber, whilst the oak is allowed to develop into tall specimens for large sized timber.
Unfortunately, it is believed that Hertfordshire's woodlands are not in a good state of management, notwithstanding efforts and initiatives undertaken by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry Commission and Local Authorities over recent years, including the production of a Woodland Strategy for Hertfordshire in 1989 and the establishment of a Wildwood project afterwoods.
Often the species within woodlands no longer reflect the soil types, as fashion and saleability of various timbers has, (through management), over time, caused certain species to be favoured e.g. the beech woods of the Chilterns, and more detrimentally by the softwood plantations that replace the more natural hardwood species of the region.
Many woodlands have been altered by the invasion of Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) and to a lesser extent by the introduction of other "exotics" e.g. Sweet Chestnut (Castanea sativa), or by the insertion of conifer plantations.
Better management could involve:
- encouraging the woods for non-timber leisure and recreational use (such as shooting),
- encouraging woodland craft products,
- enlarging the timber resource.
The scale of the problem, however, needs better determining, and both this and discussion of further solutions require updating of the Woodland Strategy for Hertfordshire, and production of the 50 Vision for Hertfordshire's Wildlife and Natural Habitats by the Herts and Middlesex Wildlife Trust. A further reason for a strategic rethink concerning woodlands is Central Governments call for a doubling of woodland area by 2020 AD.
Hedges
In more recent times , the intensification of agriculture with its increasing dependence on fertilisers, widespread drainage and ploughing, has given more land over to arable production. This has, in part, eliminated the requirement for hedges, since one of their main functions was as livestock barriers, and crops do not need to be restrained. As a result, many farmers have found the management and maintenance of hedges unnecessary and consider hedges to be detrimental to crop production. This has resulted in large scale hedgerow removal or neglect. In urban areas, there has also been a tendency during environmental improvement works to replace tatty hedges with fencing, rather than take steps to improve them. A notable exception, however, to this has been a policy in North Herts of introducing hedges on council housing estates.
Meanwhile, Forestry Commission research has demonstrated that not only do hedges act as a windbreak, reducing soil erosion, but they also reduce soil desiccation, so can improve yields. By careful selection of the species that make up a hedge, the farmer can also encourage wildlife which prey upon pest species. Study by the University of Southampton demonstrates that hedges provide homes for spiders and beetles, both of which prey upon aphids. It is estimated that a 500m hedge will house 750,000 predator insects which will eat 52,500,000 aphids per week, without any pesticides being used. Hedges provide visual and physical ties between other landscape features, providing wildlife corridors in both rural areas and towns.
In visual terms, the pattern of hedges makes a major contribution to defining the scale and fabric of the landscape, by creating land parcel size, linking features and containing, framing, or blocking views.
Hedges also provide a link with history, even in areas now developed for housing or industry. The shape and form of a hedge can indicate the age of the land it encloses. The straighter they are, the more likely they are a result of The Enclosure Acts. These regular hedges usually have little regard for the shape and form of the land. Such Enclosure Act hedges may appear as a grid iron pattern imposed on the landscape and in some circumstances may contrast dramatically with the topography, almost accentuating the land form. Older hedges are usually more sinuous and sympathetic to the land form, reflecting its subtle shapes and creating a feeling of comfort and harmony. The eye is more easily led into a landscape by flowing forms and shapes.
Older hedges normally have more species, providing greater visual variety and ecological value. The age of a hedge can also be approximated by counting the different species of plants in it, according to the rule of thumb that for each species per 30 yards, add one hundred years.
Given the foregoing it is not difficult to make a case for retention and planting of hedges, and this will be an ongoing aim of the Landscape Strategy. Species suitable for hedges in Hertfordshire are Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), Sloe (Prunus spinosa), Field Maple (Acer campestre), and others used more ornamentally such as Beech (Fagus sylvatica), Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), Box (Buxus sempervirens), Yew (Taxus baccata), Holly (Ilex aquifolium) and Hazel (Corylus avellana). Privet (Ligustrum ovalifolium) is a species particularly associated with the Garden City period for suburban garden hedges, whilst a modern trend is for Leyland cypress (Cupressus leylandii). This last species can make a fine individual specimen, but can have a very suburbanising effect on the landscape, particularly when planted on the edge of towns or villages.
The treatment of water in the landscape
Extensive guidance is provided by the National Rivers Authority. Some points to highlight, however, are :
- Vegetation in the landscape (including crops) need to be planted and maintained with minimum requirements of fertilisers and herbicides.
- Design of new housing schemes roads etc. need to return precipitation to the ground in a form that will not cause pollution of the aquifer.
- Rivers should not be put in culvert or made to drain away as fast as possible.
- Water-hungry uses of the landscape, such as golf courses, should be looked at very carefully. If considered allowable and permissible they should be designed to minimise their water consumption.
- Developments in the landscape should not be allowed if they necessitate extensive land drainage schemes.
- Hertfordshire could benefit from development of more water features.